Category Archives: Unix

Moving Blocks of Text in Vim

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This gem comes courtesy of Mastering Vim Quickly. Before learning this trick, to move text I would yank/delete (Y/dd) the lines and then paste (p/P) where I wanted it to go. Inevitably I would either copy the wrong number of lines or paste the text in the wrong spot.

Add these lines to your .vimrc:

vnoremap J :m ‘>+1gv=gv
vnoremap K :m ‘<-2gv=gv

Open your file and enter Visual Mode (V) at the beginning of the block of text that you want to move. Using j or k move the visual selection over the text. To move the text up or down use K and J. Hit escape once the text is where you want it.

Here it is in action:

Touch ID Authentication For Sudo Commands in Iterm2

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While reading an article about possible new Apple Watch features, one sentence caught my eye: “The biometric mechanism can be used to unlock the Mac, authorize Apple Pay purchases, autofill usernames and passwords, and (for the more advanced users) authenticate with sudo in Terminal.” I have a Macbook Pro with Touch ID and this was the first I’ve heard about using Touch ID to authenticate sudo commands. A quick Google search uncovered the simple change. Add the following line to /etc/pam.d/sudo:

auth sufficient pam_tid.so

Simple enough. I made the change but didn’t get the Touch ID prompt when I issued a sudo command. I opened a new window and restarted Iterm2 but I still got prompted for a password when issuing a sudo command. After some more Googling I found this ticket in the Iterm2 issue tracker. Turning off the following Iterm2 option fixed the problem:

Turn off Prefs > Advanced > Allow sessions to survive logging out and back in

This is what it looks like:

Let’s Encrypt Automatic SSL Certificate Renewal Does Not Work With Certbot

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By now everyone should have an SSL enabled website thanks to the Let’s Encrypt project which provides free SSL certificates that are good for three months at a time. If you don’t, check out their site and generate your free SSL certificate. The main problem with a three month SSL certificate is remembering to renew it before it expires. Fortunately Let’s Encrypt provides an application called Certbot that does automatic certificate renewal. The instructions were simple. Set up a daily cronjob that calls certbot and it will automatically renew your SSL certificate when it reaches the thirty day expiration period. No problem, I set up the following:

0 0 * * *       certbot renew --quiet --no-self-upgrade

Because certbot does not renew the certificate until it reaches the thirty day threshold, there was no easy way to test it. Fortunately I stuck a reminder on my calendar to check. Sixty days later I opened my website, clicked the padlock and checked the certificate expiration date. It still had the same expiration date, ie it didn’t get renewed. Puzzled I ran the command manually:

# certbot renew --quiet --no-self-upgrade
#

That seemed to work fine. I checked the certificate’s expiration date and it was now ninety days into the future. There was nothing obvious in the logs so I did a Google search. I found a lot of other people reporting the same issue. It wasn’t until I saw this post that I understood the issue. The crontab had a PATH that did not include the location of certbot. When I downloaded certbot, I installed it in /usr/local/bin. By default, my crontab’s PATH did not include /usr/local/bin. There were a few ways to fix this.

  1. Update the crontab to contain the complete path to the certbot application:
    0 0 * * *       /usr/local/bin/certbot renew --quiet --no-self-upgrade
  2. Update the PATH variable to include the missing PATH location. If no PATH is defined in the crontab, simply add the following at the top:
    PATH=$PATH:/usr/local/bin
  3. Move the certbot application to a common location like /usr/bin

If you were struggling to figure out why your Let’s Encrypt SSL certificate was not renewing automatically with certbot, I hope you found this page before spending a lot of time debugging.

The Heartbleed Bug and AWS ELBs

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In an earlier post, I outlined the steps to patch a Linux system and regenerate an SSL certificate in response to the Heartbleed bug. Amazon announced that the openssl code has been patched in the ELB service. If you are terminating SSL on an ELB, you need to regenerate your SSL certificate and upload it to AWS. Here I present the steps to do that.

First create a new private key and a CSR.
Generate an RSA private key:

$ openssl genrsa 2048 > private-key.pem
Generating RSA private key, 2048 bit long modulus
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................+++
.................+++
e is 65537 (0x10001)

Generate the CSR using the new private key:

$ openssl req -new -key private-key.pem -out csr.pem

Next upload the CSR to your SSL registrar. The details are different for each provider but you want to find the option to re-key or regenerate your certificate. When you select this option, your registrar will ask you to upload a new CSR. Copy and paste the CSR that you just created. Within a few minutes, the registrar will either email the new certificate or make it available on their website.

After you download the new certificate, log into the AWS Console and go to the Load Balancer section. Select the ELB and click on the Listeners tab. Click on the Change link next to your certificate name. Unfortunately you can’t simply overwrite the existing certificate with the regenerated certificate. Click Upload a new SSL Certificate. You will be presented with a box that looks like this:
ELB SSL Certificate Dialog

Create a new Certificate Name in the first box. Then copy the new private key that you created in the first step into the Private Key box. Finally copy the newly generated certificate from your registrar into the Public Key Certificate box. If your registrar provided the certificate chain bundle, you can copy that into the Certificate Chain box. This last step is optional. Click save and the new certificate should be used by the ELB within a few seconds.

To verify that the new certificate is being used, open your website in a browser and click the lock icon in the address field. View the certificate details and verify that the issue date is today and not the original date the certificate was issued. Here is a snippet from my updated certificate:

SSL Certificate Details

If you have any questions or comments, please post them below.

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Quick Fix For the Heartbleed Bug

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Unless you are living under a rock, you have heard all of the hysteria surrounding the Heartbleed openssl bug. Due to the nature of the bug and the possible exposure of SSL private keys, the openssl package needs to be updated and the SSL certificate needs to be regenerated. I will present the procedure that I used to patch a CentOS Linux server.

First I updated the openssl package:

# yum update openssl

Next I regenerated my SSL certificate. I needed to create a new private key and a CSR.
Generate an RSA private key:

$ openssl genrsa 2048 > private-key.pem
Generating RSA private key, 2048 bit long modulus
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................+++
.................+++
e is 65537 (0x10001)

Generate the CSR using the new private key:

$ openssl req -new -key private-key.pem -out csr.pem

I am leaving out the details that I used as they are different for each certificate. It’s important that you set the Common Name correctly. The Common Name is the Fully Qualified Domain Name (FQDN) for the certificate. If you are creating a wildcard certificate for foobar.com, then the Common Name is *.foobar.com. I now have two files in my directory, private-key.pem and csr.pem.

Next I uploaded my CSR to my SSL certificate registrar. The exact details will be different between registrars. In my case, I used the User Portal for Geotrust. There was an option to Reissue Certificate. That opened a text box for me to copy and paste my CSR. A few minutes later Geotrust sent me an email with the new certificate. I regenerated a certificate with Godaddy and the option was called Re-Key. Instead of emailing me the new certificate, Godaddy made it available for download from their website.

The last step is to overwrite the existing private key and certificate with the newly created files and restart Apache. To verify that Apache is using the new SSL certificate, visit your site and click on the lock icon in the address bar. View the certificate details and verify that the issue date is today and not the original date the certificate was issued. Here is a snippet from my updated certificate:

SSL Certificate Details

Good luck and do not delay patching your systems. Please leave any comments or questions below.

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Painlessly Increase Your EBS Based Root Volume Without Rebuilding

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You created an AWS instance and decided to make a small root volume. Maybe you were shortsighted or just being cheap. Now the root volume is nearly full and you can’t expand it because you didn’t use LVM.

[[email protected] ~]$ df
Filesystem 1K-blocks Used Available Use% Mounted on
/dev/xvda1 8256952 8173060 8 100% /

To add insult to injury, AWS recently cut the price of EBS storage in half. This issue can be fixed with a handful of commands from the CLI.

Before you begin, take note of a few important details about the instance. You need to know the instance-id and the availability-zone that your instance is running in. You can get the instance-id from the running instance by querying the instance metadata service. More details about the metadata service are available here.

[[email protected] ~]$ curl http://169.254.169.254/latest/meta-data/instance-id/
i-2db6840d

Determine which availability-zone your instance is running in.

[email protected]:~$ aws ec2 describe-instances --instance-id i-2db6840d --output text | egrep ^PLACEMENT
PLACEMENT default None us-east-1a

Shut down the instance. You can’t get a reliable snapshot of a volume while it’s attached to a running instance.

[email protected]:~$ aws ec2 stop-instances --instance-ids i-2db6840d --output text
i-2db6840d
CURRENTSTATE 64 stopping
PREVIOUSSTATE 16 running
RESPONSEMETADATA e8b8f0ab-7cd1-478f-a7c1-bb5bf81b2355

To determine the volume-id of the root volume run describe-instances:

[email protected]:~$ aws ec2 describe-instances --instance-ids i-2db6840d --output text | egrep ^EBS
EBS attached True vol-b6b98bfb 2014-02-11T20:36:00.000Z

Take a snapshot of vol-b6b98bfb:

[email protected]:~$ aws ec2 create-snapshot --volume-id vol-b6b98bfb --output text
None vol-b6b98bfb pending 8 None 2014-02-11T21:10:41.000Z snap-e76a3b25 647956677678
RESPONSEMETADATA 03f83444-a473-4bc1-b138-1065f6d5cee0

Now that you have a snapshot (snap-e76a3b25) of the root volume, you can create an exact larger copy of it. If the snapshot state is still pending, you will get an error. Do not forget to specify the size or the new volume will be the same size as the old.

[email protected]:~$ aws ec2 create-volume --availability-zone us-east-1a --size 40 --snapshot-id snap-e76a3b25 --output text
us-east-1a standard vol-b4aa98f9 creating snap-e76a3b25 2014-02-11T21:14:51.280Z 40
RESPONSEMETADATA 2257dac5-1685-488c-b545-2f8f9417a6ac

Finally detach the original volume (vol-b6b98bfb) and attach the newly created volume (vol-b4aa98f9).

[email protected]:~$ aws ec2 detach-volume --volume-id vol-b6b98bfb --output text
2014-02-11T20:36:00.000Z i-2db6840d vol-b6b98bfb detaching /dev/sda1
RESPONSEMETADATA ea10cbbd-2adf-43c9-b5e3-cca19c1e5c26
[email protected]:~$ aws ec2 attach-volume --volume-id vol-b4aa98f9 --instance-id i-2db6840d --device /dev/sda1 --output text
2014-02-11T21:20:00.318Z i-2db6840d vol-b4aa98f9 attaching /dev/sda1
RESPONSEMETADATA 146b0ecc-6916-49aa-931c-24c6cdbaca8c

Start your instance and verify that your root volume is now 40 GB.

[email protected]:~$ aws ec2 start-instances --instance-id i-2db6840d --output text
i-2db6840d
CURRENTSTATE 0 pending
PREVIOUSSTATE 80 stopped
RESPONSEMETADATA 9320cb43-589f-4ab5-a1ce-d23718c02297
[email protected]:~$ ssh -i .ssh/prd.pem [email protected]
ssh: connect to host 172.16.14.78 port 22: Connection refused
[email protected]:~$ ssh [email protected]
Last login: Tue Feb 11 21:06:04 2014 from

__| __|_ )
_| ( / Amazon Linux AMI
___|\___|___|

[[email protected] ~]$ df -h /
Filesystem Size Used Avail Use% Mounted on
/dev/xvda1 7.9G 7.8G 92M 99% /

The root volume is still 8 GB. This is because the volume was created based on a snapshot. Run resize2fs to resize the volume to 40 GB.

[[email protected] ~]$ sudo resize2fs /dev/xvda1
resize2fs 1.42.3 (14-May-2012)
Filesystem at /dev/xvda1 is mounted on /; on-line resizing required
old_desc_blocks = 1, new_desc_blocks = 3
The filesystem on /dev/xvda1 is now 10485760 blocks long.
[[email protected] ~]$ df -h /
Filesystem Size Used Avail Use% Mounted on
/dev/xvda1 40G 7.8G 32G 20% /

For details on how to grow an EBS based LVM filesystem, see this article that I wrote.

If you have any questions, please post them in the comments below.

Quick and Dirty LVM Volume Expansion Using EBS on Amazon EC2

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Problem: I have a central rsyslog server that is filling up. I used LVM on the log partition so that I can grow it on demand. Here are the exact steps that I took to grow the partition.

I allocate fifteen 25 GB volumes and write the ec2-create-volume output to a file disks.txt. Volumes must be allocated in the same availability zone (AZ) as the instance (server) that they will be attached to.

[email protected]:~/f$ for ((i=1; i<16; i++));
> do
>    ec2-create-volume -s 25 -z us-east-1b >> disks.txt
> done
[email protected]:~/f$ awk '{print $2}' disks.txt 
vol-61dac038
vol-0adac053
vol-3bdac062
vol-d5dac08c
vol-efdac0b6
vol-92dac0cb
vol-84dac0dd
vol-acdac0f5
vol-45dbc11c
vol-15dbc14c
vol-07dbc15e
vol-34dbc16d
vol-25dbc17c
vol-e1dbc1b8
vol-aedbc1f7

Next I attach the fifteen volumes to the instance. I found that you can’t have more than 15 partitions per device letter, ie you can’t go above /dev/sdk15.

[email protected]:~/f$ export i=1
[email protected]:~/f$ awk '{print $2}' disks.txt | while read disk
> do
>    ec2-attach-volume $disk -i i-1c4b3265 -d /dev/sdk$i
>    i=$((i+1))
> done
ATTACHMENT      vol-61dac038    i-1c4b3265      /dev/sdk1       attaching      2013-05-02T16:31:43+0000
ATTACHMENT      vol-0adac053    i-1c4b3265      /dev/sdk2       attaching      2013-05-02T16:31:45+0000
ATTACHMENT      vol-3bdac062    i-1c4b3265      /dev/sdk3       attaching      2013-05-02T16:31:48+0000
ATTACHMENT      vol-d5dac08c    i-1c4b3265      /dev/sdk4       attaching      2013-05-02T16:31:50+0000
ATTACHMENT      vol-efdac0b6    i-1c4b3265      /dev/sdk5       attaching      2013-05-02T16:31:53+0000
ATTACHMENT      vol-92dac0cb    i-1c4b3265      /dev/sdk6       attaching      2013-05-02T16:31:55+0000
ATTACHMENT      vol-84dac0dd    i-1c4b3265      /dev/sdk7       attaching      2013-05-02T16:31:58+0000
ATTACHMENT      vol-acdac0f5    i-1c4b3265      /dev/sdk8       attaching      2013-05-02T16:32:00+0000
ATTACHMENT      vol-45dbc11c    i-1c4b3265      /dev/sdk9       attaching      2013-05-02T16:32:03+0000
ATTACHMENT      vol-15dbc14c    i-1c4b3265      /dev/sdk10      attaching      2013-05-02T16:32:05+0000
ATTACHMENT      vol-07dbc15e    i-1c4b3265      /dev/sdk11      attaching      2013-05-02T16:32:09+0000
ATTACHMENT      vol-34dbc16d    i-1c4b3265      /dev/sdk12      attaching      2013-05-02T16:32:11+0000
ATTACHMENT      vol-25dbc17c    i-1c4b3265      /dev/sdk13      attaching      2013-05-02T16:32:14+0000
ATTACHMENT      vol-e1dbc1b8    i-1c4b3265      /dev/sdk14      attaching      2013-05-02T16:32:16+0000
ATTACHMENT      vol-aedbc1f7    i-1c4b3265      /dev/sdk15      attaching      2013-05-02T16:32:18+0000
[email protected]:~/f$

Up to this point, I have been working on my local Linux box. The next steps need to be done directly on the instance.

I loop through all fifteen partitions and create physical volumes on each using pvcreate so they can be used by LVM.

[[email protected]]# for ((i=1; i<16; i++));
> do
>   pvcreate /dev/sdk$i
> done
  Writing physical volume data to disk "/dev/sdk1"
  Physical volume "/dev/sdk1" successfully created
  Writing physical volume data to disk "/dev/sdk2"
  Physical volume "/dev/sdk2" successfully created
  Writing physical volume data to disk "/dev/sdk3"
  Physical volume "/dev/sdk3" successfully created
  Writing physical volume data to disk "/dev/sdk4"
  Physical volume "/dev/sdk4" successfully created
  Writing physical volume data to disk "/dev/sdk5"
  Physical volume "/dev/sdk5" successfully created
  Writing physical volume data to disk "/dev/sdk6"
  Physical volume "/dev/sdk6" successfully created
  Writing physical volume data to disk "/dev/sdk7"
  Physical volume "/dev/sdk7" successfully created
  Writing physical volume data to disk "/dev/sdk8"
  Physical volume "/dev/sdk8" successfully created
  Writing physical volume data to disk "/dev/sdk9"
  Physical volume "/dev/sdk9" successfully created
  Writing physical volume data to disk "/dev/sdk10"
  Physical volume "/dev/sdk10" successfully created
  Writing physical volume data to disk "/dev/sdk11"
  Physical volume "/dev/sdk11" successfully created
  Writing physical volume data to disk "/dev/sdk12"
  Physical volume "/dev/sdk12" successfully created
  Writing physical volume data to disk "/dev/sdk13"
  Physical volume "/dev/sdk13" successfully created
  Writing physical volume data to disk "/dev/sdk14"
  Physical volume "/dev/sdk14" successfully created
  Writing physical volume data to disk "/dev/sdk15"
  Physical volume "/dev/sdk15" successfully created
[[email protected]]#

Next I loop through and extend the volume group varlogVG to include the new physical volumes.

[[email protected]]# for ((i=1; i<16; i++));
> do
>   vgextend varlogVG /dev/sdk$i
> done
  Volume group "varlogVG" successfully extended
  Volume group "varlogVG" successfully extended
  Volume group "varlogVG" successfully extended
  Volume group "varlogVG" successfully extended
  Volume group "varlogVG" successfully extended
  Volume group "varlogVG" successfully extended
  Volume group "varlogVG" successfully extended
  Volume group "varlogVG" successfully extended
  Volume group "varlogVG" successfully extended
  Volume group "varlogVG" successfully extended
  Volume group "varlogVG" successfully extended
  Volume group "varlogVG" successfully extended
  Volume group "varlogVG" successfully extended
  Volume group "varlogVG" successfully extended
  Volume group "varlogVG" successfully extended
[[email protected]]#

Finally I extend the logical volume and the filesystem.

[[email protected]]# df -h /var/log
Filesystem            Size  Used Avail Use% Mounted on
/dev/mapper/varlogVG-varlogLV
                      374G  140G  235G  38% /var/log
[[email protected]]# lvextend -L+375G /dev/mapper/varlogVG-varlogLV
  Extending logical volume varlogLV to 749.00 GB
  Logical volume varlogLV successfully resized
[[email protected]]# xfs_growfs /var/log
meta-data=/dev/mapper/varlogVG-varlogLV isize=256    agcount=41, agsize=2441216 blks
         =                       sectsz=512   attr=0
data     =                       bsize=4096   blocks=98041856, imaxpct=25
         =                       sunit=0      swidth=0 blks, unwritten=1
naming   =version 2              bsize=4096
log      =internal               bsize=4096   blocks=19072, version=1
         =                       sectsz=512   sunit=0 blks, lazy-count=0
realtime =none                   extsz=4096   blocks=0, rtextents=0
data blocks changed from 98041856 to 196345856[[email protected] servers]# df -h /var/log
Filesystem            Size  Used Avail Use% Mounted on
/dev/mapper/varlogVG-varlogLV
                      749G  140G  610G  19% /var/log
[[email protected]]#

Note, because I’m using XFS the fileystem can be grown while the filesystem is mounted read/write. An ext3 filesystem can be grown online (mounted) using resize2fs.

To learn how to increase the size of an EBS based root filesystem without rebuilding, see this article that I wrote on the topic.

GNU Screen + Byobu vs Weechat

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I am an avid GNU screen user. I have been using it for about fourteen years and can’t live without it. About two years ago I started using Byobu which adds some eye candy to screen. Recently I started using IRC again. A coworker introduced me to Weechat. If you still use irc, check out Weechat. All three of these programs are available in the standard Debian and Ubuntu repos.

While I’m getting used to Weechat, I discover that the keybindings to scroll through the list of nicks in a channel are F11 and F12. I hit F12 and screen invokes lockscreen. After a lot of Googling, I find that the termcap name for F12 is F2. Digging through my .screenrc I can’t find any reference to F2. Then it occurs to me to check my Byobu settings. Sure enough I find the following in ~/.byobu/keybindings:

bindkey -k F2 lockscreen           # F12 | Lock this terminal

I commented out that line. It took me a little while to figure out how to change the keybinding for my current session. There is no unbindkey command in screen. Instead you bind it to nothing.

bindkey -k F2

Hopefully this helps somebody who has a similar problem.

Change the Extension on a Large Number of Files

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Here’s a common problem. You untar an archive and it contains a large number of files that end .jpeg. You need them to have a .jpg extension. At first glance, you might be tempted to try this:
mv *.jpeg *.jpg

Give it a try and you will find it doesn’t work. The correct way to change the extension is to iterate over all of the files. Let’s start with the following:

[email protected]:/tmp/foobar$ ls
friday.jpeg  monday.jpeg  Saturday.jpeg  sunday.jpeg  Thursday.jpeg  Tuesday.jpeg  WEDNESDAY.jpeg
[email protected]:/tmp/foobar$

Once in the loop, you need to save the filename before the extension. I use a temporary variable and awk to extract it.

Here is my solution:

[email protected]:/tmp/foobar$ for i in *.jpeg
> do
>    basefilename=$(echo $i | awk -F.jpeg '{print $1}')
>    mv "$i" "$basefilename.jpg"
> done
[email protected]:/tmp/foobar$ ls
friday.jpg  monday.jpg  Saturday.jpg  sunday.jpg  Thursday.jpg  Tuesday.jpg  WEDNESDAY.jpg
[email protected]:/tmp/foobar$

I use double quotes around the variable names to compensate for filenames with spaces. In the awk statement I use the entire replacement pattern as my field separator. Using -F. will fail if you have a filename like foo.bar.jpeg.

Bash Hostname Completion

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One of the more well known features in bash is command and filename tab completion. Installing the bash-completion package adds onto this. This package enables hostname completion and a lot more. After installing bash-completion, add the following to your .bashrc:

. /etc/bash_completion
complete -F _known_hosts ssh
 
I also suggest adding
complete -F _known_hosts ping
complete -F _known_hosts traceroute

Hostname completion relies on the ssh known_hosts file. Most modern distributions hash the ~/.ssh/known_hosts file for security reasons. This prevents hostname completion from working. If you are comfortable turning off hostname hashing, then add the following to your ~/.ssh/config:
HashKnownHosts no

If you had to turn off hostname hashing, you will need to re-populate your known_hosts file. I suggest creating a list of all of your hosts and logging into them in a for loop:


for i in $(cat hostlist)
do
   ssh -n -o StrictHostKeyChecking=no $i "uname -a"
done

This assumes that you are using ssh keys. If you are not, you will need to type your password for each host. At this point you can now use hostname tab completion. If you added the second two complete commands, the same hostname completion will work for ping and traceroute.